The History Of Reflection Theory

The History Of Reflection Theory In scientific terms reflection is seen as light, heat or sound striking a surface to give off a reflection. Reflection is also seen as philosophical understanding of how one can gain knowledge through experience and use different approaches to the same scenario (Johns and Freshwater 2009 and Chambers et al 2012). The novel idea of reflection rose from a theorist John Dewey (1859-1952); his proposed view on reflection is described as persistent, active thinking and taking into consideration the supporting evidence that forms knowledge to the given situation. This theorist suggests that the person uses their mind and emotions to facilitate reflection (Bulman and Schutz 2008). This suggests that Dewey describes reflective individuals has being open-minded, responsible and wholehearted (Vachon and Leblanc 2011). Deweys perception of reflection was a platform for many authors to elaborate on in terms of understanding reflective practice. Johns and Freshwater (2005) propose that health professionals should find the meaning of reflection through description rather than definition because to define reflection is to suggest the author has authority over its meaning. This in turn allows reflections models and frameworks to be used intuitively giving a more holistic approach, it can be subjective and purpose driven (Johns and Freshwater 2005). Mann et al (2007) describes Schons (1983) view that reflection can happen in two ways: reflecting upon activities whilst they are happening called reflection in action (present reflection) and reflecting upon activities once they have happened (reflecting on the past). Rolfe et al assert that reflection is the engine that facilitates superficial learning into finding a deeper understanding that enables the practitioner to transform what is known to knowledge in action. Reflection Model and frameworks The reflection framework developed by Schon and Argyris (1992) involves three elements: (1) knowing-in-action (2) reflection-in-action and (3) reflection-on-practice (Ghaye and Lillyman 2010). Ghaye and Lillyman (2010) have extrapolated Schons work to include knowing-in-action; they propose that practitioners customise and tailor their own knowledge or theories to the situation presented. Knowing in action is described further by Carper (1978) who identifies five approaches to knowing in action; empirical, personal, ethical and aesthetic knowing ( Newton and McKenna 2009). Reflection-in-action by Schon and Argyris (1992) has been adapted from Schon (1983) it is to do with reflecting in the moment without disturbing care. It involves thinking on your feet Ghaye and Lillyman (2010) propose that whilst this may be a complex process it is by far the most effective when clarifying that needs of patients are being met. It is the way in which practitioners compose themselves to handle and resolve difficult situations when being faced with them (Schon 1992). This could entail thinking of what needs to be said to patients whilst talking to them already. Gustafsson and Fagerberg (2004) state that Schon (1983) believes reflection-in-action allows nurses to display a combined range of skills abstract knowledge and clinical experience. This type of reflection is difficult to master as is challenge our knowing-in-action and is used by professional practitioners that have acquired technical skills over a number of years Rolfe et al (2011) and Ghaye and Lillyman (201 0). Mann et al (2007) state that professional practitioners are able to reflect-in-action because they have the knowledge to do interpretive orientation monitoring, assessing and changing patient care on a continual basis. Mann et al (2007) also state that student nurses are limited to reflection in action because their experiences are not authentic and the role is supervised throughout thus students actions are questioned and changed if necessary to suit patient care. This is why critical reflection is important learning tool for students and can be facilitated by mentors, clinical supervisors. Schon (1992) reflection-on-action is reflecting back on events taken place. The reflector can examine and analyse the events step by step either within self, discussion with another practitioner or within groups (Ghaye and Lillyman 2010). Greenwood (1998) take on reflection on action as cognitive post-mortem this is where the practitioner goes back to review actions that were made during the events. Greenwood (1998) argues that reflection before action is not deemed important for this type of reflection and to be unable to reflect before action is considered erroneous as patient care and outcomes become influenced by these factors. It is already known that Dewey was the first advocate of learning by reflection, Rolfe et al (2011) summarise Deweys (1938) model of reflective learning as experiencing through observing and reflecting on current or past events which leads to gaining new or enhancing knowledge. In modern healthcare however Gibbs (1988) model of reflection see appendix 1 is widely used which is an adaptation of Deweys (1938) original model. Gibbs (1988) model asks the practitioner to paint a picture of the event describe what happened and attach emotions and thoughts to the event. Gibbs then prompts the practitioner to weight what was good or bad about the experience. The third aspect of the model is technical this part asks the practitioner to analyse the situation in the hope to uncover either new findings or confirm the current situation. The fourth aspect is about understanding and finding out what else could the practitioner have done to change the previous outcome of the situation being started and lastly the practitioner is prompted to write an action plan in case the same or similar scenario can take it our (McKinnon 2004). Although Gibbs model appears cyclical it is not clear as to how the action plan which concludes the reflection process is linked back to description (Rolfe et al 2011). Gibbs model of reflection give the practitioner simple and general cue questions which allows the practitioner room to expand their thoughts on also it the most widely used reflection model for student nurses (Bulman and Schutz 2009) in contrast Rolfe et al 2011 state that Gibbs model has a generic and unspecific feel therefore some reflective practitioners find Gibbs model to vague. Holms and Stephenson (1994 see also Rolfe et al 2011) see appendix 2 shared similar assertions to Gibbs model and therefore they proposed another reflection framework consisting of better designed cue questions. Stephenson framework is aimed towards more on action rather than theorising outcomes. Rolfe et al (2011) suggest that Stephenson and Holms framework mirrors Deweys initial interpretation of learning by thinking. However neither Gibbs model or Stephenson framework encompass a clear guideline to how knowledge can be linked to practice apart from asking the practitioners to think about what they would if they encountered a similar situation again. The framework set out by Johns (2004) is an adaptation of many frameworks and models by many authors (Johns and Freshwater 2005). John and Freshwater (2005) encompassed not only the different aspects of reflection such in-action and on-action but also mindful practice. Benner et al (1996) explains that mindful practice is seen as clinical judgement which is practitioners possessing the ability to see what is happening as it happening in a clinical environment that allows the practitioner to engage ethically with the situation. Johns (1995) framework also included reflexivity which asks the practitioner to revisit the situation and asks interpersonal questions that allow the practitioner to link previous experiences to the current situation. Johns and Freshwater (2005) see appendix 3 have managed to articulate a model of reflection which is structured and concise this model also impacts clinical supervision and can be used for mentoring purposes. Taylor (2006) see appendix 4 illustrates its model of reflection by using the words REFLECT as mnemonic device where each letter is represents a process of how reflection can take place. Tacit knowledge is displayed in this type of reflection, it is knowledge that practitioners are unaware of possessing and only comes to light when reflecting about the decisions they have made either during or after the event Schon (1987). There is a sense of liberation attached to Taylors reflection as it also caused the practitioner to be accepting of news ideas and not to be confined to constraints Taylor (2006) uses a critical friend to encourage reflection. Taylor (2006) understands that changes in awareness is a sure possibility because new insights can arise through reflection this occurs by linking emotions and feelings furthermore it requests the practitioner to ask themselves what have they learnt from their experience. Taylor model of reflection is laid out in manner that demands structure d critical reflection and requires a facilitator or critical friend to see the process through this could be a disadvantage because it can be a demanding procedure, not very empowering to challenge top ranking staff and a facilitator may not be available (Rolfe et al 2011). Kolb (1984) see appendix 5 see also Rolfe et al (2011) model of reflection is directed towards experimental learning, Kolb model is set out such that it asks the practitioner to look beyond describing and observing past events but also to theorise on the reflective events to determine if new approaches can be addressed or implemented. Kolbs classic model of experimental learning consists of four components; experience, observation/reflection, generalization and conceptualisation and active experimentation (Stonehouse 2011). When compared to Gibbs model this model is truly cyclical and reflexive because Kolb sets out to generate a hypothesis to test the clinical setting hence the practitioner is allowed to renew reflecting on the newly modified experience (Rolfe et al 2011). Reflective Practice Reflective practice is seen has using reflective techniques to improve, maintain changes in clinical procedures and influence guidelines to encourage greater safety of patients in all areas of health organisations (Bulman and Schutz 2008). Duffy (2007) states reflective practice must clearly be demonstrated by the practitioner for personal and professional development in nursing and other allied health professions. Price (2004) states that nursing practices can be transformed by facilitating insight and reason by practitioners, Price (2004) also understands that workforces may also be doubtful of the wisdom behind changes to particular strategies for example changes to multidisciplinary team meetings held usually midweek could be changed to a day closer to the weekend and therefore the workforce may be doubtful of referrals being received on time to their relevant partners. Burns and Bulman (2000) and Johns (2000) assert that reflective practice whilst it is patient centred all addresses the untidiness and confusion of the clinical environment. Benner et al (1996) adds functioning of the practice environment is not as clear cut as a science textbook. Johns (2005) states that learning though reflection leads to enlightenment finding out who we are, empowerment having courage to redefine who we are and emancipation given freedom to make changes to achieve desirable effects. It is the role of clinical supervisors, preceptors and mentors to encourage and implement reflection and critical thinking within their practice environment (Price 2004). Reed (2008) state that mentors are able to support less experienced or new employees by sharing their experience with them and providing a higher level of knowledge and understanding of different work practices. Duffy (2007) uses Williams (2001) to suggest problem based learning provides stimulus for student nurses to develop their critical reflection skills. Continuing Professional Development Health care organisations in the United Kingdom have undergone and still continue to undergo changes to how it is regulated (Rolfe et al 2011). The emphasis is largely associated with increasing patient safety and risk reduction (Rolfe et al 2011, Mantzoukas 2008). Evidence-based studies have taught the NHS and regulatory bodies how to change practices and procedures to create better outcomes for patients, they have also encompassed further development for staff to promote a better use of resources through clinical professional development (CPD) (Bulman and Schutz 2009). The Healthcare Professionals Council (2012) and The Nursing Midwifery Council (2006) state that nurses and midwives must provide evidence and maintain competency levels to remain in employment as nurses and midwives every three years after registering. The NMC does not determine the nature or types of continuing professional development programs to undertake, it is the responsibility of the practitioner and organisation to do this (Gould et al 2006, Munro 2008). Munro (2008) claims self regulation is vital to professional development and is achieved by maintaining a portfolio constructed of professional and personal achievements and certificates of attendance to mandatory competency trainings. Leblanc and Vachon (2011) agree that continuing education programmes such as diabetic training, pressure sore management training and infection control training as well as MSc postgraduate courses such as tissue viability or nursing prescribing courses add to a professional competency portfolio . Critical Incident Analysis Reflective practice is deployed when undertaking critical incident analysis (CIA). Critical incidents can be either a surprise event (ref) or series of events that could trigger reflection (Hanning 2001). The analysis process enables the practitioner to pause and contemplate on the situation and to establish meaning to the situation. Critical thinking can be viewed as either negative or positive experiences (Price 2004) and therefore some practitioners have exhibited discomfort associated with critical incident analysis because the process can challenge what they thought they knew as best practice can have undesirable effects and evoke anger, grief, frustration and sadness (Rich and Parker 1995 see also Vachon and LeBlanc 2011). Critical incident events could be viewed as drug errors, nosocomial cross-infection or helping a patient achieve a comfortable, dignified death, closing of wards. However not all incidents have to be as grave as these. CIA can also be viewed as a significant incident where it does not pose immediate threat, however it causes the practitioner to reflect upon the situation in systematic manner (Ghaye and Lillyman 2010). Communication skills Non-verbal and verbal skills are used to demonstrate communication which is the sending and received of messages (McCabe 2004). In nursing communication is not only about transmitting information, nurse-patient relationship involves in the transmitting feelings and nurses need to be able to display the appropriate behaviour or manner to demonstrate that their feelings have been recognised (Sheppard 1993 cited in McCabe 2004). Attending behaviour is described by Stein-Parbury (2009) as being ready to listen, maintain good positioning, open body language, eye contact and facial expression these are all are signs of an outward physical manifestation which when a nurse displays is demonstrative of their genuine interest to know and understand their patient. Department of Health (2000) states that good communication between health providers and patients is essential for establishing high quality care. The most important attribute deemed by patients practitioner should have is the willingn ess to listen to and explain patients concerns (Moore 2009). According to the NMC (2010) the role of nurses is to use their clinical judgment in the provision of care which would enable patients to improve, maintain or recover their health, to cope with health problems, and to achieve the best possible quality of life, whatever their disease or disability, until death. This is where reflection and critical incident plays a role in good communication and evolving our interpersonal skills. Discussing a patients condition and advising them on the therapy available ot giving medication are example of reflection-in-action. Reflection in action causes the practitioner to slow down and think of how to approach the patient, they may assess the situation and decided to leave out medical jargon, and use simplified speech, (Kraszewski and McEwen 2010). There are no specific models to use for these examples it is more about how the practitioner relates to the patient to convey their message is important. An example of reflection-on-action that enables practitioners to reflect on their communication skills is breaking-bad news. Bad-news has a variety of meanings attached to it ultimately it may leave the patient with fewer life choices (DHSSPS 2003). Guidelines are available to facilitate breaking of bad news. Guidelines are set out to help the practitioner conduct themselves in an empathetic manner it enables them to ensure the privacy and dignity of the patient have been maintained (DoH 2003). Unable to convey the message appropriately to patients and their families it leaves an indelible mark on the nurse-patient relationship (DHSSPS 2003). Breaking bad news is exhausting, emotionally draining and difficult task for practitioners (OLeary 2010). Because of this it is best for staff to able to reflect upon the situation soon after the event with clinical supervisors, mentor or education facilitators (DHSSPS 2003). Conclusion From this study it can be confirmed that reflection has been widely sourced since John Deweys initial introduction. The models and frameworks of reflection all ask the practitioner to paint the picture of what happened in the clinical setting and asks the practitioner cue questions to make them relate their feeling and emotions experienced during, or after reflecting. Reflective models that end with action plans do not appear truly cyclical and models that form new hypothesis and allow experimentation to test the hypotheses are reflexive and cyclical. Some of the frameworks ask the practitioner to challenge social conflict within their organisations. Becoming proficient in reflection helps practitioners nurse gain a greater edge for understanding patient care they can use this asset to becoming mentors and clinical supervisors. Reflective practice can be challenging and some may find it difficult if all we do is analyse what went wrong this is why it is also important to reflect on what was good in practice. Nurses need to provide evidence of continuing professional development they need to be able to withstand rigours checks to make sure the sustain their registration by the NMC using reflective practice within their clinical environment sets them up for achieving this. Reflective practice using either critical incident analysis or emancipatory reflection aids in learning about communication. Reflective practice can open doors to gaining new knowledge and does not only identify problems encountered but helps nurses to share good experiences. It can positively affect job satisfaction and achievement. Reflection does not have to be a lengthy or exhaustive process allowing room for student nurses or allied health to attempt reflection whilst studying as it this reflective experience that would enrich their knowledge of personal knowing and helps them to link this with patient care. There are different strategies students and practitioner can use to facilitate reflective practice these include keeping journal log, seeking feedback from mentors and clinical supervisors, having a critical friend, making anecdotal notes having group discussion. Attending MDT meetings and going on ward rounds may also facilitate reflection as the patients are discussed at length from when they first came to the health setting and to what has happened to them since.

The Nirvitarka Concentration as Represented In Narayans Mr Sampath Ess

The novels of R.K. Narayan reflect that Indian sensibility which has been acquired through the ages from the wisdom of Indian philosophical thought that has been continually enriched since the ancient times but which had receded since colonization. Narayan adopts this 'theoretical base of the Indian philosophical tradition to retrieve and reconstitute a sense of Indianness. Perhaps, this is why he has proved to be "the most lasting, highly rated and widely accessible, while his writing is the most consciously rooted in local circumstances, traditions and values" as claimed by Dennis Walde(694). Meenakshi Mukherjee had earlier recognized Gandhi as having reached the state of Jeevan Mukta as depicted in Waiting for the Mahatma (Mukherjee 99-100). Even V.P. Rao observed that "Krishnan practices some sort of yoga. He goes through the... The last three stages of Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi."(Rao 32)Taking this a priory. I attempt to evaluate Srinivas of Mr Sampath on the scale of Patanjal i's Nirvitarka concentration as mentioned in his Yogasutra. Before embarking on the venture of interpreting Srinivas's experience of undergoing Nirvitarka concentration during an exorcist's ritual, it is imperative to have an overview of Patanjali's Yoga philosophy, of course, in a nutshell. Throughout this paper I have referred to P.N.Mukerji's translation of Patanjali's Yoga-sutra as well as of the commentary on Yoga philosophy by Swami Hariharananda Aranya. In his Yoga-sutra Patanjali expounds the theory of controlling the mind in order to know the Self. As he says, ;ksxfpÙko`fÙkfujks/k% (Aranya 7) Yoga is the discipline of restraining the fluctuation or modification caused due to the occupation of the mind. The occupation of the mind is to create t... ...his family, at the crucial moments of their life by acquiescing to take care of his father in the absence of Ravi and his mother when she takes Ravi to the tantric's village Works Cited Aranya,Swami Hariharananda.Yoqa Philosophy of Patanjali Trans.P, N.Mukerji.Calcutta: University Press, 1963. Bowling,L.E. "What is the Stream of Conscious Technique." Critical Approaches To Fiction. Ed.Shiv K.Kumar and Keith Mckean. New Delhi: Atlantic, 2003.331-345. Mukherjee,Meenakshi. The Twice Born Fiction. New Delhi: Heinemann, 1974. Narayan,R.K. "Mr. Sampath." The World of Malqudi. Ed.S.Krishnan. New Delhi: Viking, 2000. Rao,V.P. "The Art of R.K.Narayan." The Journal of Commonwealth Literature. 5(1968) 32-35 Warder, Dennis. Post-Colonial Literatures in English: History, Language, Theory. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.Ind.Rpt.2002.

Development and induction Essay

The origin of leadership training in the USA has its origin in the 19th century when the first university Programme was started. Since then academic community has played a vital role in the training of school principals. The development of the Standards was administered by the National Center for History in the Schools at the University of California, Los Angeles under the guidance of the National Council for History Standards with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the U. S. Department of Education. (Brundrett2001). In UK national standards were introduced in 1994-1997 for head teachers to be prepared for their increased demand in their roles. The national standards for head teachers in UK were first introduced by the minister for education. The minister believed that head teachers needed preparation and support in their responsibility and training of head teachers should be a must according to the central government and not the local government. Further, the concern for education minister was for the head teachers to gain practical experience important to their responsibilities. The relevant practical skills were more familiar to leaders and managers in the commercial sector than education sector For head teachers to receive relevant experience on their job they required practical skills. In the USA university education enjoy support from the government, although it faced challenges from the leadership development. There are only two public schools in the world that have adapted standards for school principal. These are the USA Inter state school leadership licensure consortium (ISLLC) in 1996 and the teachers training agency (TTA) in England. The reason for this is that traditional has tended to view head teachers responsibilities as leaders rather than resource manager. (Brundret, 2007). In the early 21st century there was great interest of leadership in education due to the widespread belief that the quality of leadership makes a considerable impact to school and student end results. There is also increasing recognition that schools require effective leaders and managers if they are to provide the best education for their pupils. Effective leadership in schools require committed and trained teachers but also support from other senior and middle managers. Though, the need for quality leadership is widely accredited, there is a reduced amount of assurance about which leadership behaviours are most likely to produce favourable results at the end of the day. Therefore, educational leadership and management, use different leadership models to ensure, relative efficiency in developing successful schools. (Bush, 2005). There are various models that were used in leadership in both USA and UK. They include; instructional leadership that focuses on pupil learning, moral style involves merging leadership with democracy and particular care for the young. Participative leadership focuses on shared decision making among all the stake holders in education sector. Managerial style focuses on supervisory ‘cold’ achievements on targets while contingent leadership is where the leader adapts his or her particle style of leading. Of all these styles, transformational is the most comprehensive as it offers productive approaches leader. Leadership training programme have emerged recently in the international field. In 2000 the national college for school leadership was established to provide training for leadership development and research (DFES, 2004). Initiatives for improving school leadership has taken place in the USA and UK. Leadership development in relation to internationalizing and globalization has made the UK and USA governments to promote leadership development aiming at school improvement and also exchanging school leaders’ experiences. (Brundret, 2001). School heads need to provide and seek for effective organization and management of schools. These can be achieved through organizational structure which reflects the school principles and also implement plans and policies for the development of school facilities Head teachers have also the duty to manage the school as a whole; in that they are accountable to the school community. That is pupils benefit from a high quality education and everyone work together to accept responsibilities of the outcome. Schools exist in social contest therefore; head teachers must build a culture and a curriculum that takes into account the diversity of the school’s community. Also ensure that the pupils learning experiences are integrated with the community. He should partner with other sectors in providing for the academic, moral, social, spiritual and cultural for the well being of the school community. Induction ensures head teachers make improvements in their jobs and the school environment. An efficient induction programme helps school leaders and the staff to settle in without being taken aback by lack of support. Induction into the schools involves orientation, personal introductions, understanding the job responsibilities, knowing where to find things and understanding the values and polices of the school. Preparations should reflect the diverse needs such as full-time, part-time, temporary and prior experience, and the level of contact with children. Generally, induction programme will depend on individual circumstances. A well implemented induction programme had rewarding benefits to the school. They include; ? Effectiveness in their responsibilities. ? Encourage more effective and dependable relationships with pupils and help raise standards of behavioural and attainment ? Reduces misunderstandings and breaches of procedures and rules ? Leaders feel valued and supported as it’s concerned with high morale ? Problems in learning can be identified and addressed in advance ? Schools can demonstrate they have fulfilled their legal obligation to explain health and safety, safeguarding procedures and other Government legislation ? Supports staff retention; the cost of induction is insignificant compared with the cost of recruiting and training replacement staff. In England ,national standards for head teachers were developed by Teacher training agency (TTA) and introduced in 1997 because they perceived the tasks of school heads were changing, they come up with standards that focused on shaping the future, leading, learning and teaching, working with others, managing the organization and securing accountability(DFES,2004) There is no appropriate leadership but there are qualities that are desirable. According to the government’s teacher training agency the main requirement is the ability to give a clear direction and purpose, make decision and adapt to the new ideas which entails understanding and keeping to date with current education and communication among all staff levels. These abilities are important to the task of school leaders as they define the vision, mission and objective of the school. Achievement and quality of teaching depends on leadership development. NCSL emphasized that the national standards for head teachers even should be both encouraging and target a range of users, including governors. The advice should be inspirational in that the standards convey the excitement of this important role and encouraging so that serving head teachers continue to work in a way that improves and transforms schools and contributes to the future development of the education sector. Inter state School Leaders Licensure Consortium acknowledges leader who promotes the achievement of all students by providing the development, performance, and stewardship that is shared and supported by the school community. The leader has knowledge and understanding of: learning goals in a whole society, the principles of developing and implementing strategic plans, effective communication, effective consensus-building and negotiation skills . A leader who promotes the success of all students by ensuring management of the organization, operations, and resources for efficient and effective learning environment. The leader has knowledge and understanding of: theories and models of organizations and the principles of organizational development and legal issues impacting school activities. Leadership that promotes the success of all students by partnering with families and community members, responding to diverse community interests and needs, and mobilizing community resources. The leader engages in activities ensuring that: high visibility, active participation and communication with the larger community is a priority and relationships with community leaders are identified. A school leader who promotes the integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner. The leader believes in values and he is committed to: the ideal of the common good and the principles in the Bill of Rights (Bush, T. 2005) Well the quality of leadership is very important in school effectiveness. Participants receive input on aspects of leadership, opinion which they then use to examine their own work and that of their colleagues in the team. All fundamentals of this demanding programme are related to the needs of the particular team and will result in individual and team plans based upon necessary changes to improve performance. Even though different countries have significantly similar educational programme, for instance, the leader with strong emphasis in creating good practices including vision and mission. (Bush, 2005). Some countries have a programme for newly appointed school leaders like in England they have a budget to cater for head teachers personal professional development. This programme revolves around educational knowledge represented by research, participation in efficiency of schools and knowledge creation among the participants. Apart from school principals, deputy heads also undergo leadership development because some might seek school leadership roles. Another group of people that has to undergo leadership development programme are the middle managers, because they are mostly in classrooms. Some middle managers may be reserved about exercising leadership in what has been traditionally an idealistic profession and other members of staff may be unused to seeing them exercising this role. They then consider the impact they are making upon the various people they are responsible for leading and determine strategies for coping with the different demands by different people. Drawing from a survey carried out in North Carolina, training and learning increases experience and one must do the job to learn the job (Bush 2005) Leadership development requires action learning where individuals learn with and from each other and reflecting on their own experience. Mentoring is also important as the less experienced leaders learn from experienced this has been used in USA, Australia and England. Although, they make one to dependent on the mentor and time consuming leading to inefficiency in the long run. Coaching is also important in leadership development as it ensures commitment, good relationship, higher performance and good relationship. For school improvement leadership preparation is essential but as a result of globalization what worked well in a particular country might not be successful elsewhere. (Bush T 2005) National standards are useful as they ensures effectiveness in schools, pupils leave school when they are well fit, reduces mistakes, time management and the end result is quality service delivery. The value of standards also assumes quality leadership, consistency, good teaching practices, and the end product is pupil success. Consequently, standards reflect the mistaken idea for good leadership bringing about quality leadership but in reality it depends on the education values (orchard, 1994) Good leadership provides skill for the right strategies that lead to good performance in schools where practical skill among stakeholders are encouraged and responsibilities are shared. National Standards for head teachers were formulated following a meeting with teachers, head teachers, professional and subject associations, local authorities, higher education institutions and others from both inside and outside education. The Standards recognizes the main role that head teachers play in the development and delivery of government policy and in raising and maintaining levels of achievement in schools in order to meet the needs of every pupil. The National college school for leaders (NCSL) in UK has worked closely with school leaders in various schools to create a series of focus on how the national standards for head teachers have been put into framework by school leaders. The focus is anticipated to be a helpful resource for school leaders, offering ideas and possible ways to promote for schools trying to go with the National Standards with their individual framework. National standards for head teachers are applicable to school heads . They are intended to provide a context of professional development and action to serve aspiring head teachers. Therefore, standards have a range of uses. They assist in recruitment of school heads, provide guidelines to all stake holders as to what is expected from the head teacher and identify level of performance. Although, standards reflect wrong ideas about the quality of education. Different people have varying ideas about how to make education successful but in real sense for education to be worthwhile there must be formulated guidelines and good leadership in place. Also, standards can be educational idea rather than a value to quality leadership. (Orchard, 1994). Standards in schools do not portray the balance between professional qualities and leadership actions and it will be hard to measure goals and objectives. Standards have also portrayed a bad idea about experts in the educational sector; they assume that experts can judge educational achievement by the kind of leadership in place and also can take up positions from the experience they have from the industry. Standards also fail to differentiate responsibilities of good school leaders. In a democratic society justifiable leadership has to go hand in hand with productive decision making mechanisms. Use of standards is badly chosen at it assumes that all trained school leaders exercise good leadership. But standards cannot capture the all leadership qualities that are right or wrong for instance, in 2000 UK developed its national curriculum and all schools had to follow and you cannot suggest that its quality is right as all leaders in school have to be consistent with them. Therefore, this challenges standard because qualities and skills required for school leadership would be flexible to cater for individual school and pupil needs. Leadership at national level uses their efforts to improve education. Schools often function efficient where leaders serve the interest of the pupil are best served by less guidelines and therefore school leaders should be left to operate schools individually with limited set of rules. However, the key difference between the two counties is the continued existence and influence of the local education authorities in UK compared to USA where no existence of such, management of schools is influenced by the head teacher (DFES 2004) Unlike the National Curriculum in UK, their core subjects are: English, mathematics and science; USA follows a similar framework; however, schools can develop additional curriculum to meet individual pupils’ needs and circumstances. In UK school principal have the overall responsibilities and can be held accountable of any problem in schools unlike in the USA where the responsibilities are shared among all the stakeholders in the education industry (Orchard, 1994). Unlike in USA which provide leadership teams through its school leadership learning teams (SLLT) which involves ten sessions spread over two years, the national college school for leadership(NCSL) in UK has no such team and come up as a result of training head teachers from other members of their staff. Standards have dominated training and development of head teachers in UK and USA. Leading and managing schools is obligatory because these are public duties. Furthermore, from a professionally developed programme that reflect education on practical skills and qualities leaders are likely to be appreciated. Therefore, for them to be successful they should integrate academic programme, take account of their responsibilities and work together with the entire education industry. The development of more effective leadership for performance in schools should include; developing a customs where teachers and head teachers feel confident and empowered to participate fully in performance of school, the acknowledgement of professional responsibility to be involved in effective, sustained and relevant professional development throughout their careers and to contribute to the professional development of others, and the creation of an effective, sustained and relevant professional development as part of a wider review of teachers’ professional duties. For school effectiveness, improvement and providing culture within which teaching and learning will excel educational leadership has been viewed by many as an important element. Hence, training them has been of great importance especially, in UK where teachers aspiring to become head teachers, those newly appointed those head teachers who have been in post for some want to continue with their own professional development. The national standards for head teachers reflect education in schools. The main aim of head teacher is to provide professional leadership and management in schools through ensuring high quality teaching and learning opportunities for all pupils. For these to be viable the head teacher must have certain attributes like: knowledge and skills to actively participate in reflective learning to gain greater understanding his professional roles and management principle. Personal qualities and value are also important in a school leader; such qualities include commitment, integrity, consistency and confidence. Professional characteristics that clarify the diverse professional capabilities that help in understanding frameworks of accountability, promote social diversity and equal opportunities. (Brundret, 2001) REFERENCES Bush, T and Glover, D. (2005). `School leadership: concepts and evidence. London: Routledge. Brundrett, M. (2001). Development of school leadership preparation course in UK and America comparative analysis. Northampton: University of Leicester. Dfes, (2004) National standards for head teachers. London: Penguin. Hay, (2001). Management consultants. Leadership Programme for serving head teachers, London: Oxford University Press. Orchard, J. (1994), Are national standards for head teachers in England helpful? London: Institute of education

Analysis of Jane Austen´s Pride and Prejudice - 607 Words

Pride and Prejudice was written by Jane Austen, she was born in 1775 and died in 1817. Austen published: Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park, and Emma in her life time and Northanger Abbey and Persuasion were published within a year of her death. Pride and Prejudice is a book about four marriages. Along with the four marriages, by the end of the book the readers see how the characters develop. Mr. Bennet and Mrs. Bennet are married and have five daughters: Jane, Elizabeth, Mary, Catherine (Kitty), and Lydia. Mr. Bennet is a respectable, sensible, intelligent man, who takes refuge in his books and seems to want nothing more than to be bothered as little as possible by his family. Even when Elizabeth warns him about letting Lydia go to Brighton because of the moral danger of the situation. Mr. Bennet hides in his books because he made the the mistake of marring Mrs. Bennet a foolish and perky woman. Her main purpose throughout the book is to marry off all five of her daughters. Mrs. Bennet lacks concern to teach moral values to her daughters, she i s perfectly happy with Lydia and Wickham’s marriage. By the end of the book Jane Bennet and Charles Bingley get married. Jane Bennet universally well-liked and is the oldest of the Bennet sisters. Jane is considered beautiful, good-tempered, sweet, amiable, humble, selfless, and rejecting to judge anyone negatively. Her tendency to give people the benefit of the doubt leads her to be hurt by insincereShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Jane Austen s Pride And Prejudice 2405 Words   |  10 PagesChapter 2 Elizabeth Bennet - Analysis â€Å"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.† This opening sentence from Pride and Prejudice reflects the ideals of the age when it was written. Jane Austen wrote about the societal norms and the mindset of the general public through the medium of a family with five daughters, the Bennets. Elizabeth Bennet, the second of the daughters is the one who is different, and the protagonist ofRead MoreAnalysis Of Jane Austen s Pride And Prejudice1313 Words   |  6 Pages$aying Ye$ Gloria Steinem, a women’s rights activist during the 1960’s and 1970’s reveals she â€Å"was never against marriage per se. Before feminism, [she] didn’t think [she] had any choice† (qtd. in Hass). Steinem is a strong feminist and advocate for women’s rights; however, she used to believe that when it comes to marriage, women simply had no choice. Similarly, women in nineteenth century England had little power in the decision, as families married off their daughters as quickly as possible andRead MoreAnalysis Of Jane Austen s Pride And Prejudice 1062 Words   |  5 Pagesthis character is capable of making the others smile and laugh. In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Bennet acts as this type of light source. She stays positive in almost every situation. She looks for the best in every individual and is rarely negative, even when those around her are. Throughout the novel, Jane Austen exposes the reader to Jane’s bubbly and positive persona lity and allows the reader to form an accurate opinion on Jane. Austen creates Jane’s optimistic, trusting and generous personality throughRead MoreAnalysis Of Jane Austen s Pride And Prejudice 1089 Words   |  5 Pages Jane Austen was a brilliant author from the Victorian period. The comedic satire books he wrote were nothing less than genius. Her perception of human character is outstanding and it is very prevalent in his material. Specifically speaking, the characters in his piece, â€Å"Pride and Prejudice†, were extremely complex in both action and thought. Whether she purposely developed the characters that way or unconsciously wrote about them using her own understanding of human character, the characters areRead MoreAnalysis Of Jane Austen s Pride And Prejudice Essay1434 Words   |  6 Pagesamong many, literature became one of the most important arts in the world and a well-read person was recognized as educated and intelligent. When one acknowledges this fact, it is necessary to question why the introductory sentence in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice is one of the most recognized sentences in literature today. Oftentimes, one need only to start the sentence, â€Å"It is a truth universally acknowledged,† before someone else will finish it and a discussion of Austen’s brilliant tale willRead MorePride Prejudice Literature Analysis1311 Words   |  6 PagesLiterature Analysis 2 The most difficult part of creating a masterpiece is the actual process of writing or composing it, one highly overlooked difficulty of the job of the creator is the development of a suitable title. In just a few words, an effective title gives the audience a basic idea of what they are about to spend their time reading about. Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice is an example of a novel with such a title that is very significant in the development of the story. As the readerRead More An Analysis of Characters in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice1662 Words   |  7 PagesAn Analysis of Characters in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice An author will often give his or her work a title that reflects the overall theme or meaning of the piece-this is certainly the case in Jane Austens novel Pride and Prejudice. A title may set the mood or describe a situation which otherwise might require several paragraphs to develop. Pride and Prejudice is a combination of humor, irony, and twists of events. Austen entitles her work Pride and Prejudice to emphasize subtly theRead MoreJane Austen s Pride And Prejudice1418 Words   |  6 PagesMarriage is a fundamental topic in Jane Austen’s famous novel, Pride and Prejudice. Readers become invested in the lives of the Bennet sisters who are constantly dreaming of relationships. Still unknown, however, is Austen’s reason for writing this novel that is so extremely concentrated on marriage. Some critics believe that Austen wrote the novel to portray how different social classes affected the lives of women such as the Bennet sisters. Others, however, believe that the n ovel was writtenRead MorePride And Prejudice By Jane Austen1285 Words   |  6 PagesPride and Prejudice Analysis I.Introduction Jane Austen wrote her novels during the time period known as the Regency. The Enlightenment and the Age of Reason, a time where ideas like democracy, secularism, and the rise of developing sciences were making their way across Europe had come to an end.It was replaced with the wave of horror that was the French Revolution, a once minor revolt that escalated into a violent war, concluding with the rise of Napoleon, which whom England fought against the majorityRead MoreLiterary Analysis : Pride And Prejudice 1420 Words   |  6 PagesLiterary Analysis Research Paper MLA format Minimum requirements: Pages 1-5 (Include at least one parenthetical citation for each source listed on Works Cited page.) Author/biographical writing style Short summary of 10 sentences using plot diagram Setting Major characters Theme Symbols/motifs Literary prose techniques Prose analysis Page 6 Reflections – your opinion of author novel (see your reaction journal) Page 7 Works Cited (minimum of 5 reliable sources) Felicia L. Cridland Professor